Nearest neighbour distance matching Leave-One-Out Cross-Validation for map validation

Abstract

Several spatial and non-spatial Cross-Validation (CV) methods have been used to perform map validation when additional sampling for validation purposes is not possible, yet it is unclear in which situations one CV method might be preferred over the other. Three factors have been identified as determinants of the performance of CV methods for map validation: the prediction area (geographical interpolation vs. extrapolation), the sampling pattern and the landscape spatial autocorrelation. In this study, we propose a new CV strategy that takes the geographical prediction space into account, and test how the new method compares with other established CV methods under different configurations of these three factors. We propose a variation of Leave-One-Out (LOO) CV for map validation, called Nearest Neighbour Distance Matching (NNDM) LOO CV, in which the nearest neighbour distance distribution function between the test and training data during the CV process is matched to the nearest neighbour distance distribution function between the target prediction and training points. Using random forest as a machine learning algorithm, we then examine the suitability of NNDM LOO CV as well as the established LOO (non-spatial) and buffered-LOO (bLOO, spatial) CV methods in two simulations with varying prediction areas, landscape autocorrelation and sampling distributions. LOO CV provided good map accuracy estimates in landscapes with short autocorrelation ranges, or when estimating geographical interpolation map accuracy with randomly distributed samples. bLOO CV yielded realistic error estimates when estimating map accuracy in new prediction areas, but generally overestimated geographical interpolation errors. NNDM LOO CV returned reliable estimates in all scenarios we considered. While LOO and bLOO CV provided reliable map accuracy estimates only in certain situations, our newly proposed NNDM LOO CV method returned robust estimates and generalised to LOO and bLOO CV whenever these methods were the most appropriate approach. Our work recognises the necessity of considering the geographical prediction space when designing CV-based methods for map validation.