The psychological benefits of open-water (wild) swimming: Exploring a self-determination approach using a 19-country sample

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• dc.contributor.author Groeneveld, Wencke
• dc.contributor.author Krainz, Morris
• dc.contributor.author White, Mathew P.
• dc.contributor.author Heske, Anja
• dc.contributor.author Elliott, Lewis R.
• dc.contributor.author Bratman, Gregory N.
• dc.contributor.author Fleming, Lora E.
• dc.contributor.author Grellier, James
• dc.contributor.author McDougall, Craig W.
• dc.contributor.author Nieuwenhuijsen, Mark J.
• dc.contributor.author Ojala, Ann
• dc.contributor.author Pahl, Sabine
• dc.contributor.author Roiko, Anne
• dc.contributor.author van den Bosch, Matilda A.
• dc.contributor.author Wheeler, Benedict W.
• dc.date.accessioned 2025-05-12T06:51:48Z
• dc.date.available 2025-05-12T06:51:48Z
• dc.date.issued 2025
• dc.description.abstract A growing body of qualitative and quantitative research has explored the potential benefits to mental health and well-being of open-water or “wild” swimming. To date, most studies have used small samples in specific locations, limiting generalisability, and have not distinguished open-water swimming from other forms of outdoor swimming, such as in open-air pools, raising questions about any additional benefits of wild swimming over and above swimming outside per se. Using survey data from n = 1200 recently recalled outdoor swimming visits across 19 different countries, we compared self-reported well-being outcomes for swims in either open-water (wild) locations or open-air pools. Additionally, we explored the degree to which satisfaction of the motivations identified by self-determination theory (i.e. autonomy, relatedness, and competence) may explain any differences. Swimming visits in both locations were associated with high levels of positive, and low levels of negative, well-being, as well as high levels of autonomy, relatedness and competence. Open-water swimming was, nonetheless, associated with significantly higher positive well-being than open-air pool swims, with mediation analysis indicating that feelings of greater autonomy and competence (but not relatedness) primarily accounted for the difference. Results for anxiety were more nuanced, perhaps because more competent swimmers were more likely to swim in less safe, more anxiety inducing, places. Results re-iterate, help explain, and support the generalisation of previous research reporting potential benefits of open-water swimming for mental health and well-being, and highlight the need to support further safe access to high quality open-water locations.
• dc.description.sponsorship This project received funding from the European Union's Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under Grant Agreement No. 666773. Data collection in California was supported by the Center for Conservation Biology, Stanford University. Data collection in Canada was supported by the Faculty of Forestry, University of British Columbia. Data collection in Finland was supported by the Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke). Data collection in Australia was supported by Griffith University and the University of the Sunshine Coast. Data collection in Portugal was supported by ISCTE—University Institute of Lisbon. Data collection in Ireland was supported by the Environmental Protection Agency, Ireland. Data collection in Hong Kong was supported by an internal University of Exeter—Chinese University of Hong Kong international collaboration fund. For the purpose of open access, the author has applied a Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) licence to any Author Accepted Manuscript version arising from this submission.
• dc.format.mimetype application/pdf
• dc.identifier.citation Groeneveld W, Krainz M, White MP, Heske A, Elliott LR, Bratman GN, et al. The psychological benefits of open-water (wild) swimming: Exploring a self-determination approach using a 19-country sample. Journal of Environmental Psychology. 2025;102:102558. DOI: 10.1016/j.jenvp.2025.102558
• dc.identifier.doi http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvp.2025.102558
• dc.identifier.issn 0272-4944
• dc.identifier.uri http://hdl.handle.net/10230/70350
• dc.language.iso eng
• dc.publisher Elsevier
• dc.relation.ispartof Journal of Environmental Psychology. 2025;102:102558
• dc.relation.projectID info:eu-repo/grantAgreement/EC/H2020/666773
• dc.rights © 2025 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
• dc.rights.accessRights info:eu-repo/semantics/openAccess
• dc.rights.uri http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
• dc.subject.keyword Wild swimming
• dc.subject.keyword Blue space
• dc.subject.keyword Blue health
• dc.subject.keyword Subjective well-being
• dc.subject.keyword Self-determination theory
• dc.title The psychological benefits of open-water (wild) swimming: Exploring a self-determination approach using a 19-country sample
• dc.type info:eu-repo/semantics/article
• dc.type.version info:eu-repo/semantics/publishedVersion