Space policy and industrial development in middle powers: Malaysia and Turkey in comparative perspective

Abstract

In recent years, several countries from Argentina to Turkey to Malaysia have significantly increased their investments in national space agencies as part of their industrial development program. Smaller and more efficient satellite designs, coupled with the availability of commercial off-the-shelf components, have reduced the barriers to entry for countries with limited resources and empowered new players to embark on space missions that were once deemed prohibitively expensive. This shift represents a critical change in space exploration and utilization, as space technology has become integral to communication, scientific research, and national security. At the same time, the motivations that inform policymaking vary depending on the political priorities of the governments across these regions. Building on the divergent experiences of two middle powers classified in the upper-middle income group -Turkey and Malaysia- this paper problematizes how the political landscape influences the priorities assigned to space programs in countries that are integrated into critical markets controlled by a global hegemon on unequal terms. In these contexts, the official policy to expand the informational capacity of the state beyond the national borders was shaped by two distinct dynamics. In Turkey, frequent economic crises and security concerns have influenced the direction of the country's space program with a greater focus on military applications rather than neo-developmental goals. By contrast, in Malaysia, the establishment of the Malaysian Space Agency (MYSA) in 2002 emerged out of a concern for utilizing space technology for socio-economic development around Malaysian industrial policy that prioritized high-value-added exports for growth.